Her debut single Yes was released under an indie record label in November 2004. In 2005, she switched labels to Sony Music Entertainment Japan and released Hanabi made Ato Sukoshi (花火まであとすこし - unofficial translation: “A Little Longer Until the Fireworks”) in July. Her third single, Sakasama no Chō (逆さまの蝶 - unofficial translation: “The Inverted Butterfly”), was released on January 25, 2006. Sakasama no Chō was the opening theme of the 2005/2006 anime Jigoku Shoujo (地獄少女), and will be inserted into the movie Humoresque ~Sakasama no Chō~, to be released in February 2006. The opening theme for Jigoku Shōjo’s second season, NightmaRe, was also performed by SNoW, and was released as a single on December 6, 2006.

Albums

初雪(Hatsuyuki) - January 23, 2007

External links

Official websites in Japanese:

• SNoW Official Site
• SNoW - www.sonymusic.co.jp
• Humoresque

In 1984, the Summer Olympics added a men’s 1500 meter wheelchair race as an exhibition event. Snow went into heavy training, relocating to Houston, Texas, to train on the same track as Carl Lewis. This was the first Paralympic event to appear before a large audience, and the public were unsure of their feelings for wheelchair-bound athletes. Snow received a silver medal, and the crowd gave the athletes a standing ovation at the end of the exhibition.

Snow went on to win gold medals in the 1992 Paralympics in Barcelona for singles and doubles tennis (the only man in Olympic history to accomplish this), and in Atlanta1996 was a member of the bronze medal-winning wheelchair basketball team.

He was inducted into the United States Olympic Hall of Fame on July 1 2004.

In 1984, the Summer Olympics added a men’s 1500 meter wheelchair race as an exhibition event. Snow went into heavy training, relocating to Houston, Texas, to train on the same track as Carl Lewis. This was the first Paralympic event to appear before a large audience, and the public were unsure of their feelings for wheelchair-bound athletes. Snow received a silver medal, and the crowd gave the athletes a standing ovation at the end of the exhibition.

Snow went on to win gold medals in the 1992 Paralympics in Barcelona for singles and doubles tennis (the only man in Olympic history to accomplish this), and in Atlanta1996 was a member of the bronze medal-winning wheelchair basketball team.

He was inducted into the United States Olympic Hall of Fame on July 1 2004.

Track listing

1. Mud on the Tires - 3:28 (Brad Paisley/Chris DuBois)
2. Celebrity - 3:43 (Paisley)
3. Ain’t Nothin’ Like - 3:35 (Don Sampson/Wynn Varble)
4. Little Moments - 3:39 (Paisley/DuBois)
5. That’s Love - 4:43 (Paisley/DuBois/Chris Lovelace)
6. Somebody Knows You Now - 3:42 (Paisley)
7. Famous People - 4:10 (DuBois/Chris Wallin)
8. Hold Me in Your Arms (And Let Me Fall) - 4:24 (Paisley/DuBois/Lovelace)
9. Whiskey Lullaby (feat. Alison Krauss) - 4:19 (Bill Anderson/Jon Randall)
10. The Best Thing That I Had Goin’ - 4:08 (Jerry Salley/Chris Stapleton)
11. The Cigar Song - 3:37 (Paisley)
12. Make a Mistake - 1:33 (Paisley)
13. Make a Mistake with Me (instrumental) - 3:15 (Paisley)
14. Is It Raining At Your House - 4:01 (Hank Cochran/Dean Dillon/Vern Gosdin)
15. Spaghetti Western Swing (instrumental) (feat. Redd Volkaert) - 4:32 (Paisley/Kevin Grantt/Rogers)
16. Farther Along - 5:23 (Paisley/Traditional)
17. Kung Pao (hidden track) (feat. the Kung Pao Buckaroos) - 1:00

On other non-essential routes, additional parking rules may also come into effect, like parking on only a certain side of the street, such as the side with even or odd-numbered addresses, or not being allowed to park at the end of a cul-de-sac or dead end, and having to move and repark to the other side as each portion of a street is plowed and cleared.

Typically, the emergency is declared by the mayor or other high official. The declaration is usually issued before the storm hits, as drivers may be unable to move or even reach their cars after it has begun. This is not a product issued by the National Weather Service.

In case of extreme snow falls, a driving ban may be imposed when driving around becomes extremely difficult and hazardous. For example, when about 7 feet (2.1 m) of snow hit Buffalo, New York at the end of 2001, a driving ban was imposed for all but emergency vehicles. [1]

A chicken strip is a sometimes derogatory term used to describe the width of unused tread on the edges of motorcycle tires, typically a sport bike.

A turning motorcycle must lean into the turn. The faster it is going or the sharper the turn, the farther the motorcycle must lean over. For a formula relating speed, turn radius, and lean angle, see Bicycle and motorcycle physics. As the motorcycle leans, the tires’ contact patches move farther to the side causing wear. The chicken strip is the amount of unworn tread caused by a motorcyclist being considered too chicken to go faster through a turn and thereby lean the motorcycle farther over.

This is frequently used as a derogatory term deriving from the term chicken. Hence, chicken strips mark an inexperienced motorcyclist who is afraid to lean a motorcycle far enough to wear the edges of the tire. It should be noted however that due to the handling capabilities of many modern motorcycles, and the vagaries of road condition, it is not advisable to exploit outer handling limits on public roads. On a closed race circuit, however, a rider is expected to use the edges of the tires on turns in order to stay competitive.

The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) established the Uniform Tire Quality Grading Standards (UTQGS) in 49 CFR 575.104.

Components

The UTQG rating is made up of 3 components:

Treadwear

The treadwear grade is a comparative rating based on the wear rate of the tire when tested under controlled conditions on a specified government test track. A tire graded 200 would wear twice as long on the government test course under specified test conditions as one graded 100. It is wrong to link treadwear grades with your projected tire mileage. The relative performance of tires depends upon the actual conditions of their use and may vary due to driving habits, service practices, differences in road characteristics and climate.

Traction

Traction grades, from highest to lowest, are AA, A, B and C. They represent the tire’s ability to stop on wet pavement as measured under controlled conditions on specified government test surfaces of asphalt and concrete.

Temperature

The temperature grades, from highest to lowest, are A, B and C. These represent the tire’s resistance to the generation of heat

He is brother-in-law of actress Tyne Daly and actor Tim Daly.

Snow graduated from the Juilliard School in New York City. He was a co-founder of the New York Rock & Roll Ensemble.

One of his most famous compositions is the theme music for sci-fi show The X-Files, which reached #2 in the UK Singles Chart, but Snow also wrote the music for Chris Carter’s Millennium, and the background music scores for both shows, a total of 12 seasons’ worth. The X-Files typically used more instrumental music score than most hour-long dramas.

He also composes the scoring for Smallville. He has even composed music for video games, such as Syphon Filter: Dark Mirror and Giants: Citizen Kabuto.

He has been nominated for 12 Emmy Awards and won 18 ASCAP awards.

SNOW 1.0 and 2.0 are two word-based synchronous stream ciphers developed by Thomas Johansson and Patrik Ekdahl at Lund University.

SNOW 1.0, originally simply SNOW, was submitted to the NESSIE project. The cipher has no known intellectual property or other restrictions. The cipher works on 32-bit words and supports both 128- and 256-bit keys. The cipher consists of a combination of a LFSR and a Finite State Machine (FSM) where the LFSR also feeds the next state function of the FSM. The cipher has a short initialization phase and very good performance on both 32-bit processors and in hardware.

During the NESSIE evaluation weaknesses was discovered and SNOW was therefore not included in the NESSIE suite of algorithms. The authors has developed a new version, version 2.0 of the cipher, that solves the weaknesses and improves the performance.

SNOW has been used in the ESTREAM project as a reference cipher for the performance evaluation.

Track listing

1. “Hand Crank Transmitter”
2. “Jed E 3’s Poem”
3. “MGM Grand”
4. “Protected from the Rain”

Track listing

1. “Hand Crank Transmitter”
2. “Jed E 3’s Poem”
3. “MGM Grand”
4. “Protected from the Rain”

In the bicycle industry they are known as one of the few manufacturers of metal studded snow tires.

Nokian Tyres also runs the Vianor tyre chain, which is the largest and most extensive tyre franchise in the Nordic countries with approximately 190 retail outlets across Finland, Sweden, Norway, the Baltic countries and Russia.

Subnivean animals include small mammals such as mice, voles, shrews, and lemmings that must rely on winter snow cover for survival. These mammals move under the snow for protection from heat loss and predators. In winter regions that do not have permafrost, the subnivean zone maintains a temperature of close to 32F (0C) regardless of the temperature above the snow cover, once the snow cover has reached a depth of six inches. The sinuous tunnels left by these small mammals can be seen when the snow melts to the final inch or so.

Winter predators such as foxes and large owls can hear their prey through the snow and pounce from above. Snowmobiles and ATVs can collapse the subnivean space, as can skis, snow shoes and bicycles.

Larger animals also utilize subnivean space. In the Arctic, ringed seals have closed spaces under the snow and above openings in the ice. In addition to resting and sleeping there, the female seals give birth to their pups on the ice. Female polar bears also den in snow caves to give birth to their young. Both types of dens are protected from exterior temperatures.

Winter World by Bernd Heinrich (2003) is an excellent resource on the ingenuity of animal survival in the seasonal cold weather of a Maine winter.

It is one of the largest winter events in Japan. Teams from outside Japan come to participate, and the festival is thought to be an opportunity for promoting international relations. About two million people come to see the enormous beautiful snow statues on display in Odori Park in central Sapporo, which is the main site of the festival.

The subject of the statues vary and often feature an event or famous person from the past year. For example, in 2004 there were statues of Hideki Matsui, the famous baseball player who plays for the New York Yankees. There are also long ice chutes on which people are encouraged to slide.

The Snow Festival began in 1950 when six local high school students built six snow statues in Odori Park. In 1955, the Japan Self-Defense Forces from the nearby Makomanai base joined in and built the first massive snow sculpture, for which the Snow Festival has now become famous. In years when the accumulated snowfall is low, the Self-Defense Force, for whom participation is considered a training exercise, brings in snow from outside Sapporo. The Makomanai base, one of three main sites, hosts the largest sculptures, with an emphasis on providing play space for children. The third site is the night life district of Susukino, which hosts the ice carvings.

In the bicycle industry they are known as one of the few manufacturers of metal studded snow tires.

Nokian Tyres also runs the Vianor tyre chain, which is the largest and most extensive tyre franchise in the Nordic countries with approximately 190 retail outlets across Finland, Sweden, Norway, the Baltic countries and Russia.

Methodology

The wear on tires that are being tested (”candidate tires”) is compared to the wear of Course Monitoring Tires (CMT), which are sold by the NHTSA at its UTQG test facility in San Angelo, Texas. Both types of tires are mounted on vehicles that will be driven in a convoy during the test, thus ensuring that the candidate tires and the CMT tires experience the same road conditions. The convoy, typically one of four or fewer vehicles, will drive 7200 miles on public roads in West Texas. Candidate tire wear will be checked during and after the test, and compared to the wear on the CMT tires from the same convoy.

The first CMTs were commercially-available Goodyear Custom Steelguards, and Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company produced all CMT tires from 1975 until 1984. From 1984 to 1991, the CMT tires were produced by Uniroyal. CMT tires are now “specially designed and built to American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standard E1136 to have particularly narrow limits of variability.” 1.

Treadwear Grade Number

The treadwear grade describes how long the tire manufacturer expects the tire to last. A Course Monitoring Tire (the standard tire that a test tire will be compared to) has a rating of “100″. If a manufacturer assigns a treadwear rating of 200 to a new tire, they are indicating that they expect the new tire to have a useful lifespan that is 200% of the life of a Course Monitoring Tire.

Limitations

The DOT does not test tires. It depends on manufacturers to test their own tires and report the results. Unfortunately, this system has made treadwear ratings far less useful than the DOT had originally intended because tire manufacturers are able to use the treadwear grade as a marketing tool.

It is legal and permissible for a manufacturer to give their tire a 240 rating when their competitor’s equivalent tire has a 220 rating; thus creating the false impression that the 240 tire is a better purchase because it will last longer. This tendency to inflate treadwear numbers has become so common that some manufacturers may report that ALL their tires have above average treadwear grades. Some are taking normal tires and reporting a treadwear of 600 or more, or giving a 220 rating to maximum performance tires with a reputation for poor tire life (e.g. the Goodyear Eagle F1 Supercar EMT).

TreadWear Grade

Below 200=15% of Tires

201 - 300=25% of Tires

301 - 400=32% of Tires

401 - 500=20% of Tires

501 - 600=6% of Tires

above 600=2% of Tires

Source: safercars.gov

Trends

In general, manufacturers tend to overstate the treadwear of their tires in an effort to create the impression that their tires last a long time. The exception to this is in competition racing tires, which customers expect to have very soft rubber compounds and very short lifespans. Manufacturers tend to give their race tires low treadwear numbers (often zero) to emphasize how soft and sticky their rubber is.

Uses

The ability of manufacturers to report their own numbers makes comparison of treadwear ratings between companies useless. Ratings may still be useful within a manufacturer’s own line of tires. For example, a customer can reasonably assume that the higher treadwear rating on a Dunlop SP 60 means it will last longer than the Dunlop SP Sport.

Along with the snowman, it is one of the two structures commonly built by children out of snow.

Snow structures made for sleeping are called igloos when made from snow blocks and quinzhees when made by hollowing out a pile of snow.

Variations

Snow forts consist of walls of piled and compacted snow. They may be “open” or “closed”, that is, a person in the snow fort may be completely surrounded by the walls on all sides, there may be a “door”, or the person may be completely exposed except in one direction. The last variation is used for snowball fights where opponents have forts facing each other and attack exclusively from their own fort. Existing structures such as the walls or concave corners of a building can be used as part of the snow fort, allowing for faster and easier construction. A snow fort can also be a tunneled-out burrow built in a large snow drift.

Snow forts are usually at least knee-height and one-roomed. Forts built for snowball fights may be higher, and ones built for “house” may have lower walls and multiple rooms. When used for snowball fights, snow forts often have sections where the wall is lower, through which the occupants throw snowballs.

In Popular Culture

The Backyardigans episode “The Snow Fort” has Mounties defending an elaborate version of such a fort while members of the ski patrol try to get in.

A Snow Advisory is issued by the National Weather Service of the United States when a low pressure system produces snow that may cause a significant pain in the ass, but does not meet warning criteria. The advisory criteria varies from area to area. Snow advisories are typically issued only when a storm system is expected to only produce snow in the advised area. Depending on the amount of snow that is expected, a Heavy Snow Warning can be issued for similar times, but when larger amounts of snow are expected. The exact border between a snow advisory and heavy snow warning varies throughout the country. If other forms of wintry precipitation are expected, then a Winter Weather Advisory or winter storm warning can be issued, also depending on the amount of precipitation that is expected.

History

Snow City is a joint venture by the Singapore Science Centre and NTUC Income Co-operative Pte Ltd. The idea behind the collaboration was that Singapore being a tropical country, many Singaporeans have never had the opportunity to experience the cold climates and snow. With the set up of Snow City will give everybody a chance to learn more about snow, in a fun way.

The 3,000 sq-metre centre was built at a cost of S$6 million and was officially opened in 2000.

Highlights

Visitors will first arrived at the Air Lock, which is maintained at 10°C. This
allows visitors to become comfortable with the lower temperatures before they enter the chamber itself.

The main focus of Snow City is its Snow Chamber, a 1200 sq-metre room covered with snow. The Snow Chamber is well maintained at -5°C and snow level is kept constantly at 400mm in depth. Between 10 to 15 tons of snow is created each week in order to maintain this level. The snow is produced using a special Snow Gun, which cools water using liquid nitrogen.

Inside the Snow Chamber, is a 60 meter long high slope which is about 3 storeys high. ‘Snowtubing’ is the main activity where visitors will be sliding down the snow slope while sitting on a inflatable tube.

There is also a Snow-Play Area for the younger children.

There is a place for wine and dine on level 2, named Alphine Lodge.

Snow City’s sound educational programmes and workshops are available to schools and interested groups.

Ski & Snowboard

Lessons for skiing and snowboarding is available at a fee.

Technology

A specially designed Snow Gun is used in the production of snow on site.

Firstly, water is atomized using high-pressure compressed air. The water then arrives at the snow gun and is pushed out of the special nozzles at the end of the barrel. Liquid nitrogen which freezes at a low temperature of -196°C is also passed through the snow gun at the same time. The extreme cold of the liquid nitrogen instantly freezes the atomized water into powder-like snowflakes.

The simplified formula to produce snow is

• One ton of liquid nitrogen + one ton of water = one ton of snow.

Their impact on transportation is often as significant as heavy snowfall, such as during the Blizzard of 1977. Snowdrifts are many times found along or on roads, as the crest of the roadbed or the furrows along the road create the disruption to the wind needed to shed its carried snow. In high mountain passes, a snow fence may be employed on the windward side of the road to intentionally create a drift before the snow-laden wind reaches the roadway.

Jeremy Triefenbach, one of the nineteenth century’s great explorers, is reputed to have become trapped in a snowdrift; surviving solely on melted snow for 13 days. His version of the story can be found in his autobiography “It’s a good deal”.

Snowdrifts commonly form on high ground, such as a plateau or hills.

History

Snow City is a joint venture by the Singapore Science Centre and NTUC Income Co-operative Pte Ltd. The idea behind the collaboration was that Singapore being a tropical country, many Singaporeans have never had the opportunity to experience the cold climates and snow. With the set up of Snow City will give everybody a chance to learn more about snow, in a fun way.

The 3,000 sq-metre centre was built at a cost of S$6 million and was officially opened in 2000.

Highlights

Visitors will first arrived at the Air Lock, which is maintained at 10°C. This
allows visitors to become comfortable with the lower temperatures before they enter the chamber itself.

The main focus of Snow City is its Snow Chamber, a 1200 sq-metre room covered with snow. The Snow Chamber is well maintained at -5°C and snow level is kept constantly at 400mm in depth. Between 10 to 15 tons of snow is created each week in order to maintain this level. The snow is produced using a special Snow Gun, which cools water using liquid nitrogen.

Inside the Snow Chamber, is a 60 meter long high slope which is about 3 storeys high. ‘Snowtubing’ is the main activity where visitors will be sliding down the snow slope while sitting on a inflatable tube.

There is also a Snow-Play Area for the younger children.

There is a place for wine and dine on level 2, named Alphine Lodge.

Snow City’s sound educational programmes and workshops are available to schools and interested groups.

Ski & Snowboard

Lessons for skiing and snowboarding is available at a fee.

Technology

A specially designed Snow Gun is used in the production of snow on site.

Firstly, water is atomized using high-pressure compressed air. The water then arrives at the snow gun and is pushed out of the special nozzles at the end of the barrel. Liquid nitrogen which freezes at a low temperature of -196°C is also passed through the snow gun at the same time. The extreme cold of the liquid nitrogen instantly freezes the atomized water into powder-like snowflakes.

The simplified formula to produce snow is

• One ton of liquid nitrogen + one ton of water = one ton of snow.

The discount rate is a financial concept based on the future cash flow in lieu of the present value of the cash flow. The divisor in the discount rate formula is the resultant future value, including income.

The concept of a discount rate differs from that of an interest rate, most notably in that the divisor in the interest rate formula is the original investment.

Example

Suppose there is a government bond that sells for $80 and pays $100 in a year’s time. The discount rate represents the discount on the future cash flow:

<math>\frac{100-80}{100} = 20\%</math>

The interest rate on the cash flow is calculated using 80 as its base:

<math>\frac{100-80}{80} = 25\%</math>

For every interest rate, there is a corresponding discount rate, given by the following formula:

<math>d = \frac{i}{1+i}</math>

<math>i = \frac{d}{1-d}</math>

An alternative method of understanding a discount rate is to consider that the discount rate tells how much future value is interest and how much is principal. For example, if $100 is deposited into an account that pays 50% interest, the amount that is subsequently withdrawn will be $150. The discount rate is 0.5/(1+0.5) = 1/3 or 33.3%. Based on this, 33.3% of the $150 is interest and the other 66.7% is principal.

The interest rate that is used to calculate the Internal rate of return or Net present value of investments is NOT the discount rate as defined here. Similarly Discounted cash flow uses the normal calculation of interest, not the discount rate defined here.

Economic Policy

One of the major issues in economics is what is an appropriate discount rate to use under various circumstances. For example, in assessing the impact of very long-term phenomena such as climate-change, use of any discount rate much more than 1% per annum renders long-term damage (occurring in, say, 200 years time) of negligible importance now, and therefore entails that there is no need to take preventative action. However, discount rates for climate change are uncertain and debatable in today’s economic and scientific community.

Conversely, governments often take a short-term view of things, effectively applying discount rates of perhaps 20% p.a. or higher, on the grounds that anything they do or fail to do which has detrimental effects in (say) 10 or more years’ time won’t prevent their re-election sooner than that.

In practice, discount rates such as 2%, 3%, 5% and 10% are widely used in economics. However there is little consensus on what value is appropriate in any given circumstance, and it often makes a significant difference.

• The Discount Rate and Theories of the Great Depression, R. L. Norman, Jr.

• Instruments of the Money Market: Chapter 3 - The discount window

• Hydroplaning (tires), a loss of steering or braking control when a layer of water prevents direct contact between road vehicle or aircraft tires and the road or runway surface
• Planing (sailing), a method by which the hull of a boat skims over the surface of the water rather than plowing through it
  • Any watercraft that is specifically designed to plane, including:
    • Hydroplane, a fast motorized boat used in racing
    • Hydrofoil, a boat with wing-like foils mounted on struts below the hull
• Seaplane, an aircraft designed to land on water
• Diving plane, a submarine control surface used to help control depth, analogous to the elevators on the tail of an aircraft
• Hydroblading, a figure skating move sometimes referred to as hydroplaning

Snow can be eaten hot or cold. The basic recipe is egg whites, cream, rosewater or another flavoring agent, and sugar, whipped until stiff. It was traditionally presented at festive occasions draping another item to give the appearance of snow. For a more luxurious effect, gold leaf would be added.

Apple snow, with puréed apple added to the basic recipe, was popular served hot in the 17th century while a more modern version is eaten cold. There is a Russian version that is called air pie, which is egg white, sugar, and fruit pureé, whipped and served hot.

Snow cake is simply a cake with egg whites as its base: it is not related to snow cream desserts.

References

Davidson, Alan. Oxford Companion to Food (1999). “Snow”, p. 731

Street tires

The grooves in the rubber are designed to allow water to be expelled from beneath the tire and prevent hydroplaning. The proportion of rubber to air space on the road surface directly affects its traction. Generally there is a tradeoff of tread friction capability; deeper patterns often enhance safety, but simpler designs are less costly to produce and actually may afford some roadway noise mitigation. Tires intended for dry weather use will be designed with minimal pattern to increase the contact patch. Tires without any tread patterns are known as slicks and are generally used for racing only, since they are quite dangerous if the road surface is wet.

Street tires will also include wear limit indicators in the form of small raised bridges within the grooves. When the tread is worn down enough that the limit indicators make contact with the road, the tire is deemed to be at the end of its service life. Brake pads use similar indicators in the form of notches on their surface that disappear when they are used.

Off-road tires

Off-road tires used in mud or dirt feature individual knob patterns to allow the tire to bite into the surface and leverage the sides of the tread to get a better grip. Given the smaller contact patch, these tires tend to wear quickly when used on asphalt.

Mountain bike & motorcycle tires

Mountain bike and some motorcycle tires feature tread patterns similar to off-road tires used on cars and trucks but may sometimes include an unbroken tread that runs along its center. This feature provides better traction and lower noise on asphalt while the bike is vertical while retaining its ability to provide lateral grip when the bike is leaning.

Caterpillar tracks

Caterpillar tracks such as those used on military tanks or construction machines have metal track segments which may be rubber-coated. They usually do not feature tread patterns, because these would offer little additional grip given the weight of the tracked vehicle.

Street tires

The grooves in the rubber are designed to allow water to be expelled from beneath the tire and prevent hydroplaning. The proportion of rubber to air space on the road surface directly affects its traction. Generally there is a tradeoff of tread friction capability; deeper patterns often enhance safety, but simpler designs are less costly to produce and actually may afford some roadway noise mitigation. Tires intended for dry weather use will be designed with minimal pattern to increase the contact patch. Tires without any tread patterns are known as slicks and are generally used for racing only, since they are quite dangerous if the road surface is wet.

Street tires will also include wear limit indicators in the form of small raised bridges within the grooves. When the tread is worn down enough that the limit indicators make contact with the road, the tire is deemed to be at the end of its service life. Brake pads use similar indicators in the form of notches on their surface that disappear when they are used.

Off-road tires

Off-road tires used in mud or dirt feature individual knob patterns to allow the tire to bite into the surface and leverage the sides of the tread to get a better grip. Given the smaller contact patch, these tires tend to wear quickly when used on asphalt.

Mountain bike & motorcycle tires

Mountain bike and some motorcycle tires feature tread patterns similar to off-road tires used on cars and trucks but may sometimes include an unbroken tread that runs along its center. This feature provides better traction and lower noise on asphalt while the bike is vertical while retaining its ability to provide lateral grip when the bike is leaning.

Caterpillar tracks

Caterpillar tracks such as those used on military tanks or construction machines have metal track segments which may be rubber-coated. They usually do not feature tread patterns, because these would offer little additional grip given the weight of the tracked vehicle.

Other terms used for describing this maneuver include “spinning brodies / doing a brodie” or “making cookies / cutting cookies”.

Doughnuts are more easily performed on wet and frozen surfaces (ice and snow). When performed in the snow it is more often done to have fun than it is to make an earnest attempt at creating the circular skid mark pattern.

In the Australian outback, doughnuts performed in the dust or mud areas of land are colloquially referred to as “circle work“.[[1]] Displays are usually performed at Bachelor and Spinster Balls. [[2]]

Performing the doughnut maneuver can be hazardous. Strain is placed on the vehicle’s suspension and drivetrain, which may result in mechanical breakdown with loss of control. Tires are also subject to severe wear which may result in a sudden loss of pressure or “blow out”.

Auto racers often do this in celebration of a race victory, and to entertain the fans after the race has finished.

References

Modern Racer - Driving Tips - Doughnuts

Track listing

1. “Hand Crank Transmitter”
2. “Jed E 3’s Poem”
3. “MGM Grand”
4. “Protected from the Rain”

A Lake Effect Snow Advisory is issued by the National Weather Service of the United States when pure lake effect snow may pose a hazard or is life threatening. The snow must be directly caused by a lake and not by a low pressure system. The criteria for this advisory vary from area to area.

Plot summary

The movie is kind of a sequel for the original Snow White story (not the 1937 Disney film) Snow White and her husband Prince Charming (now known as King Charming as he has been coronated and he and Snow White are now the rulers of the land) have a young daughter; also named Snow White. The royal family is hosting a festival in honor of Christmas. When the Wicked Queen learns about that, she decides to kill the little girl and wreak havoc on the kingdom. She creates an ice storm, and freezes the entire village, just barely missing the girl. Snow White Jr. is horrified to see her parents turned to ice. The younger Snow White and her bumbling friend Grunyon must run away and meet the Seven Friendly Giants. The younger Snow White is never safe from the Wicked Queen because she will always be able to find her. The giants must save the girl from her vengeance before she ends up frozen like her parents.

By design, the weight on the front and rear axles differs which causes uneven wear. With the majority of cars being front-engine cars, the front axle typically has more of the weight. For rear wheel drive vehicles, the weight distribution between front and back approaches 50:50. Front wheel drive vehicles also have the
differential in front, adding to the weight with a typical weight distribution of no better than 60:40. This means, all else being equal, the front tires wear out at almost twice the rate of the rear wheels, especially when factoring the additional stress that braking puts on the front tires. Thus, tire rotation needs to occur more frequently for front-wheel drive vehicles.

Turning the vehicle will cause uneven tire wear. The outside, front tire is worn disproportionately. Cloverleaf interchanges and parking ramps turn right in right hand drive countries, causing the left front tire to be worn faster than the right front. Furthermore, right turns are tighter than left turns, also causing more tire wear. Conversely the sidewalls on the right tire tends to be bumped and rubbed against the curb while parking the vehicle, causing asymmetric sidewall wear. The symmetric opposite occurs in countries that drive on the left.

In addition, mechanical problems in the vehicle may cause uneven tire wear. The wheels need to be aligned with each other and the vehicle. The wheel that is out of alignment will tend to be dragged along by the other wheels, causing uneven wear in that tire. If the alignment is such that the vehicle tends to turn, the driver will correct by steering against the tendency. In effect the vehicle is constantly turning, causing uneven tire wear. Also, if a tire is under or over-inflated, it will wear differently than the other tires on the vehicle. Rotating will not help in this case and the inflation needs to be corrected.

Manufacturers will recommend tire rotation frequency and pattern. Depending on the specifics of the vehicle tire rotation may be recommended every 12,000 km (7,500 mi). The rotation pattern is typically moving the back wheels to the front and the front to the back but crossing them when moving to the back. If the tires are unidirectional, the rotation can only be rotated front to back on the same side of the vehicle to preserve the rotational direction of the tires. Most unidirectional tires can be moved from side to side if they are remounted; tires with asymmetric rims are a rare exception. More complex rotation patterns are required if the vehicle has a full-size spare tire that is part of the rotation or if there are snow tires.

Current thinking stresses the desirability of keeping the best tires on the rear wheels of the vehicle, whether it is front or rear drive. The reason for this is that if the rear wheels lose grip before the front ones, an oversteer condition will occur, which is harder to control than the corresponding understeer which will happen if a front wheel is lost. This is also the case if a tire blows out, so the intuitive belief that the front steering/driving tires need to be the best quality is not actually the case.

In rare cases, automobile manufacturers may recommend performing no tire rotation at all (eg BMW MINI).

The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) established the Uniform Tire Quality Grading Standards (UTQGS) in 49 CFR 575.104.

Components

The UTQG rating is made up of 3 components:

Treadwear

The treadwear grade is a comparative rating based on the wear rate of the tire when tested under controlled conditions on a specified government test track. A tire graded 200 would wear twice as long on the government test course under specified test conditions as one graded 100. It is wrong to link treadwear grades with your projected tire mileage. The relative performance of tires depends upon the actual conditions of their use and may vary due to driving habits, service practices, differences in road characteristics and climate.

Traction

Traction grades, from highest to lowest, are AA, A, B and C. They represent the tire’s ability to stop on wet pavement as measured under controlled conditions on specified government test surfaces of asphalt and concrete.

Temperature

The temperature grades, from highest to lowest, are A, B and C. These represent the tire’s resistance to the generation of heat

Street tires

The grooves in the rubber are designed to allow water to be expelled from beneath the tire and prevent hydroplaning. The proportion of rubber to air space on the road surface directly affects its traction. Generally there is a tradeoff of tread friction capability; deeper patterns often enhance safety, but simpler designs are less costly to produce and actually may afford some roadway noise mitigation. Tires intended for dry weather use will be designed with minimal pattern to increase the contact patch. Tires without any tread patterns are known as slicks and are generally used for racing only, since they are quite dangerous if the road surface is wet.

Street tires will also include wear limit indicators in the form of small raised bridges within the grooves. When the tread is worn down enough that the limit indicators make contact with the road, the tire is deemed to be at the end of its service life. Brake pads use similar indicators in the form of notches on their surface that disappear when they are used.

Off-road tires

Off-road tires used in mud or dirt feature individual knob patterns to allow the tire to bite into the surface and leverage the sides of the tread to get a better grip. Given the smaller contact patch, these tires tend to wear quickly when used on asphalt.

Mountain bike & motorcycle tires

Mountain bike and some motorcycle tires feature tread patterns similar to off-road tires used on cars and trucks but may sometimes include an unbroken tread that runs along its center. This feature provides better traction and lower noise on asphalt while the bike is vertical while retaining its ability to provide lateral grip when the bike is leaning.

Caterpillar tracks

Caterpillar tracks such as those used on military tanks or construction machines have metal track segments which may be rubber-coated. They usually do not feature tread patterns, because these would offer little additional grip given the weight of the tracked vehicle.

The discount rate is a financial concept based on the future cash flow in lieu of the present value of the cash flow. The divisor in the discount rate formula is the resultant future value, including income.

The concept of a discount rate differs from that of an interest rate, most notably in that the divisor in the interest rate formula is the original investment.

Example

Suppose there is a government bond that sells for $80 and pays $100 in a year’s time. The discount rate represents the discount on the future cash flow:

<math>\frac{100-80}{100} = 20\%</math>

The interest rate on the cash flow is calculated using 80 as its base:

<math>\frac{100-80}{80} = 25\%</math>

For every interest rate, there is a corresponding discount rate, given by the following formula:

<math>d = \frac{i}{1+i}</math>

<math>i = \frac{d}{1-d}</math>

An alternative method of understanding a discount rate is to consider that the discount rate tells how much future value is interest and how much is principal. For example, if $100 is deposited into an account that pays 50% interest, the amount that is subsequently withdrawn will be $150. The discount rate is 0.5/(1+0.5) = 1/3 or 33.3%. Based on this, 33.3% of the $150 is interest and the other 66.7% is principal.

The interest rate that is used to calculate the Internal rate of return or Net present value of investments is NOT the discount rate as defined here. Similarly Discounted cash flow uses the normal calculation of interest, not the discount rate defined here.

Economic Policy

One of the major issues in economics is what is an appropriate discount rate to use under various circumstances. For example, in assessing the impact of very long-term phenomena such as climate-change, use of any discount rate much more than 1% per annum renders long-term damage (occurring in, say, 200 years time) of negligible importance now, and therefore entails that there is no need to take preventative action. However, discount rates for climate change are uncertain and debatable in today’s economic and scientific community.

Conversely, governments often take a short-term view of things, effectively applying discount rates of perhaps 20% p.a. or higher, on the grounds that anything they do or fail to do which has detrimental effects in (say) 10 or more years’ time won’t prevent their re-election sooner than that.

In practice, discount rates such as 2%, 3%, 5% and 10% are widely used in economics. However there is little consensus on what value is appropriate in any given circumstance, and it often makes a significant difference.

• The Discount Rate and Theories of the Great Depression, R. L. Norman, Jr.

• Instruments of the Money Market: Chapter 3 - The discount window